Audrey Alejandro
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How to construct and formulate research questions

9/13/2022

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In many regards, the research question can be considered the most important part of a research project. Because of its centrality, it is a common source of struggle and anxiety for students as they learn to become junior autonomous researchers.
 
In this blog post, I tell you what the role of the research question is, why it is 300% worth spending time working on it and provide some ready-to-use advice on how to improve your research question, starting with its formulation.  

​Different types of research questions

To start, let’s distinguish between different types of research questions. The list, of course, is not exhaustive. I unpack here the research questions that the students I teach have to navigate in the development of their research projects in UK higher education.
 
1. “Working research questions”
 
Throughout a research project, we ask ourselves dozens of questions while conducting our inquiry. I call these questions “working research questions”.
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​

For example, if you are investigating a research problem related to the shirts represented in this diagram, you may ask yourself questions such as:
-       “Who wears this kind of shirt?”
-       “What is the history of these shirts?”
-       “How do people have defined the word 'shirt'?”

Asking yourself these questions helps you figure out the bricks you need to put together to construct your project and make sure that you leave no stone unturned.
2. “Main research questions” 
This is a question that comprises a concept and that is pitched and formulated in a way that helps you to produce rich analytical work, rather than only description.
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​For example, taking the example in the diagram used in this example, such a question could be “How do these unusual yet common shirts represent different types of social groups and symbolise different social statuses in fantasy movies since the 1980s?”
 
To answer this analytical question you need to answer several descriptive sub-questions:
- What is the history of these shirts?
- Who wears them?
- What do these shirts represent for different audiences?​
An analytical question will help you produce more analytical results (for more information on what I mean by “analytical”, read the blog post “What is analysis? Some tips to become more analytical”)
 
3. “Sub-questions”
 
Some research designs require the execution of distinct steps, each providing results that will then be analysed jointly, to be able to reach overall conclusions. This can be the case with mixed-method research (part of the research design is quantitative, part is qualitative) or multi-method (different methods are used and all can be either qualitative or quantitative). In this type of research design, different sub-questions may need to be investigated separately, as each constitutes a different piece of the puzzle that needs to be solved to answer the main research question.
​Students often mix working questions with sub-questions and think that every question they have asked themselves throughout their project is a sub-question and needs to be shared in their research. When this occurs in assignments, we often see the main research question followed by a list of five questions that are not central to the demonstration, but that the students have asked themselves at some point. Rather than strengthening the demonstration, it tends to dilute the impact of the main research question and distracts the student (and the readers). Indeed, this tendency reinforces the challenge that caused this confusion in the first place: the difficulty of identifying the main research question and establishing a hierarchy between different types of questions that we ask ourselves during research.

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Not all the questions we ask ourselves throughout a research project need to be shared with the readers. Don’t forget that a piece of research is an argumentative discourse produced for someone else rather than a chronological archive of every idea you went through. In the same way that a music album is a finite product aimed for an audience to experience, a research paper is an intellectual product, a discourse aimed for an audience to learn from. While sub-questions are essential foundations to understanding the architecture of your project and need to be shared, you do not need to share all the working questions with the readers.

What is the role of the (main) research question?

In the rest of the blog post, I will focus on main research questions as this is what most students are asking me about. Regarding my students at the London School of Economics more specifically, these are the type of questions you are usually expected to formulate for 3000 word and 4000 word individual project assignments.
 
The main research question plays several important roles. This is why it is important to spend time working on it …. and a badly formulated research question often involves consequences rippling throughout the rest of the research design (aka shooting yourself in the foot!). A research question is a tool of research design:
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  • It guides you in the right direction and enables you to achieve the right level of ambition, that is to say, making the most out of your research project in a feasible way. I often use the metaphor of the archer shooting an arrow. If you shoot your research question arrow too high you might not be able to finish your project on time, if you shoot it too low, it does not enable you to achieve your project’s full potential.
  • It is an accountability/self-coaching device that needs to be reassessed and actualised. Your first formulation of the research question is not a contract that you cannot depart from. That being said, you need to make sure that this departure (e.g. the reformulation or modification of your research question) is done in a conscious and informed way. Otherwise, you run the risks of just drifting away, which will end up with you losing time and straying off topic.
  • It is a practical way of helping you bind (=narrow down and contain) your project and bring focus and coherence to your investigation.
 
The research question is also useful for the readers: make sure it synthesises your project’s lines of enquiry in one sentence that can strike their interest and act as a memorable takeaway!

​Formulating research questions

There are many ways to formulate research questions. Here are some tips to help you understand what is at stake in the formulation of the research question, and give you a steppingstone if you don’t know where to start.
 

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'Students often approach the idea of “formulating” a research question as a way to polish it at the end of their project to make it “sound nice”. But there is more to it than that. The words we pick for our research question are more important than any other words in our research project: they are the magic ingredients that can take our research project to the next level. Taking the formulation of your research question seriously enables you to create a more coherent and impactful research design; it also lays a solid foundation for the rest of your project.
Let’s unpack how research questions are constructed through two examples (one rather qualitative and one rather quantitative). I have kept them abstract on purpose so it is easier for you to fill in the blanks with something related to projects that you may have in mind, rather than being distracted by the specifics of what these research questions may be about:

​
How do [social group x] experience [something]?
Does [something] impact [social group]’s access to [something]?
 
In the following, I’ll unpack one by one the different types of words that constitute common research questions such as these two:

  • How do you start your research question?​
How     does [social group x] represent [something]?
Does    [something] impact [a social group]’s access to [something]?
 
Notice the difference between how these two research questions start. The first one is open-ended (not answerable via 'yes' or 'no') while the second one is closed-ended (answerable via 'yes' or 'no'). This difference has big research design implications, both epistemological and methodological. For example, open-ended questions work well when you have a small sample with rich material that you can unpack analytically to show nuances, tensions and the like. In contrast, 'yes'/'no' questions will often end up leading to very flat results with a small sample. On the other hand, hypothetico-deductive designs often work well with closed-ended questions. Closed-ended questions can also help problematise assumptions that the literature takes for granted (if everyone agrees that something is a 'yes', and your exploratory work seems to suggest it might be a 'no', a 'yes' or 'no' question can potentially lead to very innovative/provocative results). So it is always a question of making sure the word that guides the nature of your question aligns with the other dimensions of your research design.

  • The grammatical subject of your sentence
How do [social group x] represent [something]?
Does      [something] impact [social group]’s access to [something]?
 
The grammatical subject is the core of your research design. Make sure there is an alignment between what you chose as the grammatical subject and the rest of your research design choice: such as the empirical material and analytical framework you choose, as well as the literature you review.
 
For example:
 
How does [social group x] represent [something]?
 
Is different to:
 
How is [something] represented by [social group X]?
 
Here I am not talking about active style vs passive; the difference has implications in terms of what the project is about:
 
“How does the World Health Organisation represent childbirth?” reflects a project about international organisations, discourses of authority and policy-making etc while “How is childbirth represented by the World Health Organisation?” focuses on childbirth as a discursive and symbolic site, the history and geography of its representation of which international organisations represent the current instance your project aims to focus on.

  • The verb characterising the phenomenon or process you will investigate
How do [social group x]  represent [something]?
Does      [something]        impact [social group]’s access to [something]?
 
This verb is the entry point to operationalisation, so you need to ask yourself: do you understand the process or phenomenon this verb entails and is your research design enabling you to empirically assess this process or phenomena?

  • The question mark
How do [social group x] represent [something]?
Does      [something] impact [social group]’s access to [something]?
 
I encourage junior researchers to ask a question with a question mark. This will make it easier for you to identify whether your research question is actually a research question or something else (e.g. a hypothesis or variable in disguise). Make sure that your research question is different from the (formal or informal) hypothesis you may have and that there is not an answer already included in your question (that it is not a real question!).

Constructing research questions beyond formulation

​Here are a few criteria that can help you further brainstorm/self-assess your research question. Namely, your research question needs to be:
  1. Well-bounded, not too narrow (“how does the coffee shop at my university advertise their mocha latte?”) nor too broad (“how do universities all around the world advertise merchandise?”). Include some elements of your case in the research question to help bound the claims you make.
  2. Follow naturally from your introduction/literature review. If the rest of the introduction is well written, readers should be capable of guessing your research question without seeing it.
  3. Formulated via concepts: concepts a) facilitate empirical operationalisation b) bring analytical depth to your project: e.g. it would be much harder for you to operationalise empirically and to bring analytical depth to your project if your research question is “How do British people portray Polish people in the UK?” than if your research question is “How do urban British youth represent eastern European immigrants?”.
  4. Lead to empirical results via the methods you plan to use: make sure that your research question is answerable via the methods that you aim to use.
  5. Able to be answered in one impactful sentence. That sentence will be the main takeaway of your project and you should make sure this sentence is explicitly written in your project and not let for your readers to guess.
 
To conclude, there is no cookie-cutter recipe. Each methodological tradition has its own specificities when it comes to what constitutes good research questions, which goes way beyond what a blog post (or my expertise!) allows. But I assure you that implementing the tips I give you in this blog post will help you on your research design journey 😉.
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?Qué es el análisis?

9/12/2022

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Si, como estudiante, alguna vez te han dicho que tu trabajo es “demasiado descriptivo” y que necesitas ser más analítico…
 
Si, como docente, alguna vez le has dicho a tus alumnos que su trabajo es “demasiado descriptivo” y falto de “profundidad analítica”…
 
… ¡este post está escrito pensando en ti!
​La realidad es que, aunque se busque y se premie que el estudiante escriba trabajos, ensayos, papers, etc. “más analíticos,” lo más probable es que nunca le hayan enseñado criterios para distinguir un buen análisis de uno malo. El análisis es el gran elefante en la habitación de las ciencias sociales, incluso en los cursos que dicen estar enfocados al “análisis” —por ejemplo, “análisis del discurso,” que es el nombre de mi asignatura.
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seriykotik1970- El elefante en la sala
¿Pero entonces qué es el análisis, y qué hace falta para producir un buen análisis

¿Qué significa analizar?

El análisis es un proceso de transformación. Los datos y la información en sí no tienen significado, eres tú el que extrae significados a través del proceso del análisis.
 
El análisis es un proceso creativo. Lo que produces por medio del análisis es un nuevo discurso sobre el mundo que nos rodea. Esto a su vez permite a otras personas percibir el mundo de una manera diferente, comprender cosas que desconocían o que no entendían antes de leer tu investigación.
 
¿Pero cómo funciona? ¿De qué manera conseguimos comprender el mundo a través del análisis? En resumen, se consigue aportando detalle, sintetizando, categorizando, estableciendo patrones y relaciones que ayuden a otras personas a percibir dichos patrones y relaciones y por tanto a comprender el mundo de un modo diferente.
 
El trabajo de los astrónomos y demás personas dedicadas a identificar constelaciones es una buena metáfora para expresar lo que significa el análisis. El universo está lleno de estrellas. Sin embargo, en un origen algunas personas comenzaron a identificar figuras en el cielo, les dieron nombres e incluso crearon historias en torno a las figuras formadas. Esta manera de comprender el universo fue heredada de generación en generación, enseñada y recogida en libros. A su vez, las personas que aprenden esas constelaciones se acostumbran a verlas de manera intuitiva cada vez que miran al cielo.
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​Éstas son un par de definiciones de análisis extraídas de libros de texto sobre metodología:
 
«De manera literal, “desmontar” algo complejo en partes más pequeñas y explicar el todo en función de las propiedades e interrelaciones de las partes» (Robson 2011: 412, traducción del original en inglés).
 
«El proceso de ordenar los datos, organizándolos en función de patrones, categorías y unidades descriptivas, y de buscar interrelaciones entre ellos. La “interpretación” implica atribuir significado y valor al análisis, explicando dichos patrones, categorías y relaciones […]» (Brewer 2000: 105, traducción del original en inglés).
 
Ambas definiciones destacan el doble proceso en que consiste el trabajo de análisis. Por un lado, descomponer y simplificar un fenómeno complejo; por otro, seleccionar determinados elementos para construir patrones que produzcan una manera original y sintética de interpretar el mundo.
 
En la práctica, la transcripción de una hora de entrevista puede ocupar hasta 40 páginas. Por tanto, digamos que la transcripción de 10 entrevistas ocupa unas 400 páginas. Para analizarlas, es necesario dividir todo ese material en segmentos manejables, y a partir de aquí centrarse en ciertos elementos a costa de ignorar otros, para así poder encontrar cuáles son los resultados más interesantes que se puede producir a partir de esos datos.

Entonces… ¿todo vale?

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A partir de lo que hemos hablado hasta ahora surge una pregunta: ¿es aceptable en las ciencias sociales crear cualquier significado o discurso a partir de nuestros datos? Si bien el análisis es un proceso creativo, ¿significa eso que todo vale? La respuesta es ¡NO!

Es importante en ciencias sociales comprender que el significado no es inherente a los datos, sino que es el resultado de un proceso que implica tanto el material empírico como la labor del investigador o investigadora. Pero eso no implica que cualquier tipo de discurso que puedas crear a partir de esos datos sea relevante en términos científicos.
 
Establecer unos criterios explícitos sobre qué es lo que necesitamos hacer para producir un buen análisis es útil para no perder de vista el objetivo de nuestro análisis. En resumen, el objetivo del análisis es producir una demostración convincente, basada en evidencia empírica, que describa, explique e interprete un fenómeno social.

Criterios de análisis 101: la “rueda del análisis”

Cada palabra en la definición que he aportado tiene su importancia. En el esquema de “rueda” que presento a continuación, desarrollo en detalle las diferentes partes de esta definición para clarificar los criterios para un buen análisis:
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​Veamos lo que significan estos criterios en más detalle:

  • Descripción:
¿Qué está pasando? Asegúrate de que no estés intentando sacar conclusiones antes de haber descrito adecuadamente los datos.
  • Explicación e interpretación:
La descripción del material empírico es una dimensión necesaria del análisis, pero no es suficiente. Los lectores necesitan que vayas un paso más allá. Explícales lo que está ocurriendo. En función de tu pregunta de investigación, puede que esto implique, por ejemplo, aclarar las razones que explican una situación, las condiciones de su emergencia, cómo los actores implicados le dan significado en su contexto, etc. Necesitas ir más allá de la mera descripción de lo que muestran los datos, y sintetizar la manera en que interpretas y explicas la situación en cuestión relacionando esos datos con estudios y teorías previas.
  • Objeto específico de investigación:
Implica seleccionar el material de análisis que es relevante para responder a la pregunta de investigación —SÓLO el material relevante. Tienes un objetivo y tienes que ceñirte a él. Habrá partes de tu material empírico que sean interesantes pero que no tengan relación directa con la pregunta de investigación, y que por tanto hay que sacrificar sin miramientos. La pasta es muy sabrosa, pero si estás cocinando un pastel no le pondrás pasta, arruinarías el pastel, que es el objetivo. En resumen: puede que haya muchas cosas interesantes que destacar de tus datos, pero lo que se salga del tema hay que apartarlo.
  • Discurso para el público objetivo:
El análisis no es un resumen de tus datos que escribes para ti mismo. El análisis es algo creado para ser comunicado a un público. Necesita ser claro e intrigante, es un ejercicio argumentativo, necesitas convencer al lector. Imagina que estás intentando convencer a un conocido tuyo.
  • Demostración:
Una manera excelente de producir un análisis convincente es demostrar rigor. Esto quiere decir hacer algo más que simplemente crear una impresión: necesitas ir más allá de los ejemplos anecdóticos y de los casos que convienen a tu argumento. Proponte que tu demostración sea transparente e identificable, de manera que los lectores puedan comprender el recorrido a través del que has llegado a una determinada interpretación. Clarifica tus premisas, tus procedimientos y tus pasos. Procura que tu demostración sea sistemática: desarrolla estrategias y procedimientos analíticos a partir de listas de pasos claros a ser seguidos con constancia. Esto permitirá que afrontes todos tus datos (cada una de las entrevistas transcritas, por ejemplo) con el mismo marco analítico y las mismas preguntas.
 
Todos tenemos nuestras fortalezas y nuestras debilidades. Por ejemplo, algunos tienen facilidad para expresar sus argumentos con claridad pero les cuesta acotar su tema de investigación. Otros tienen habilidad a la hora de desarrollar interpretaciones interesantes, pero no a la hora de demostrar cómo han alcanzado dichas conclusiones. Es importante adquirir consciencia de cuáles de las dimensiones del análisis son nuestras fortalezas y cuáles nuestras debilidades, o cuáles tendemos a descuidar y por tanto requieren que las trabajemos con mayor atención.
 
La “rueda del análisis” puede ser utilizada como un compás para guiar nuestro trabajo y hacerlo “más analítico.” Otro momento perfecto para usarla es cuando hayas acabado tu primer borrador: usa la rueda como una checklist, comparando sus diferentes elementos con lo que has conseguido hasta el momento. ¿Estás construyendo una interpretación, o simplemente describiendo lo que arrojan los datos? ¿Has escrito tu análisis como un discurso pensado para convencer a un público, o más bien como un resumen para ti mismo? A medida que avances en tu análisis, ves contrastando la rueda con tu trabajo hasta que lo desarrolles lo suficiente como para cubrir todas las dimensiones.

This article is also available in English and Chinese.
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Audrey Alejandro (2018-)
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  • Home
  • About
  • Publications
  • Research
    • Computational Social Science meets Qualitative Research
    • Reflexivity in practice
    • Eurocentrism and the internationalisation of social science
    • The role of discourses in world politics
    • Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision
    • Climate Resilience in Dominica
  • The Methodological Artist - Personal Blog
  • Teaching
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